University of Strathclyde
2025-11-24
We should always minimise suffering
This may mean not performing an experiment at all. Not all new knowledge or understanding is worth causing suffering to obtain it.
Where there is sufficient justification to perform an experiment, we are ethically obliged to minimise the amount of distress or suffering that is caused.
Why we need statistics
It may be easy to tell whether an animal is well-treated, or whether an experiment is necessary.
But what is an acceptable (i.e. the least possible) amount of suffering necessary to obtain an informative result?
Quiz question
Suppose you are running a necessary and useful experiment with animal subjects, where the use of animals is morally justified. You are comparing a treatment group to a control group. Which of the following choices will cause the least amount of suffering?
The appropriate number of subjects
The appropriate number of animal subjects to use in an experiment is always the smallest number that - given reasonable assumptions - will satisfactorily give the correct result to the desired level of certainty.
By convention1 the usual level of certainty is: “we have an 80% chance of getting the correct true/false answer for the hypothesis being tested”
Experimental design and statistics work together
Once a research hypothesis has been devised:
Design your experiment for…
For scientific, ethical and economic reasons, experiments involving animals should be appropriately designed, correctly analysed and transparently reported. This increases the scientific validity of the results, and maximises the knowledge gained from each experiment. A minimum amount of relevant information must be included in scientific publications to ensure that the methods and results of a study can be reviewed, analysed and repeated. Omitting essential information can raise scientific and ethical concerns. (Kilkenny et al. (2009))
Detailed information was collected from 271 publications, about the objective or hypothesis of the study, the number, sex, age and/or weight of animals used, and experimental and statistical methods. Only 59% of the studies stated the hypothesis or objective of the study and the number and characteristics of the animals used. […] Most of the papers surveyed did not use randomisation (87%) or blinding (86%), to reduce bias in animal selection and outcome assessment. Only 70% of the publications that used statistical methods described their methods and presented the results with a measure of error or variability. (Kilkenny et al. (2009))
No publication explained their choice for the number of animals used
Power analysis or other very simple calculations, which are widely used in human clinical trials and are often expected by regulatory authorities in some animal studies, can help to determine an appropriate number of animals to use in an experiment in order to detect a biologically important effect if there is one. This is a scientifically robust and efficient way of determining animal numbers and may ultimately help to prevent animals being used unnecessarily. Many of the studies that did report the number of animals used reported the numbers inconsistently between the methods and results sections. The reason for this is unclear, but this does pose a significant problem when analysing, interpreting and repeating the results. (Kilkenny et al. (2009))
The next year (Kilkenny et al. (2010)) proposed the ARRIVE guidelines: a checklist to help researchers report their animal research transparently and reproducibly.
Many journals now routinely request information in the ARRIVE framework, often as electronic supplementary information. The framework covers 20 items including the following (Kilkenny et al. (2010)):
ARRIVE guidelines (highlights)
Important
A key step in tackling these issues is to ensure that the next generation of scientists are aware of what makes for good practice in experimental design and animal research, and that they are not led into poor or inappropriate practices by more senior scientists without a proper grasp of these issues.

IBioIC Carpentries Workshop